Vesicular Glutamate Transporter 1 (VGLUT1)- and VGLUT2-containing Terminals on the Rat Jaw-closing γ-Motoneurons

Currently, compared to jaw-closing (JC) α-motoneurons, the information on the distribution and morphology of glutamatergic synapses on the jaw-closing (JC) γ-motoneurons, which may help elucidate the mechanism of isometric contraction of the JC muscle, is very limited. This study investigated the distribution and ultrastructural features of vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1)- and VGLUT2-immunopositive (+) axon terminals (boutons) on JC γ-motoneurons by retrograde tracing with horseradish peroxidase, electron microscopic immunocytochemistry, and quantitative analysis. About 35% of the boutons on identified JC γ-motoneurons were VGLUT+, and of those, 99% were VGLUT2+. The fraction of VGLUT1+ boutons of all boutons and the percentage of membrane of JC γ-motoneurons covered by these boutons were significantly lower than those for the JC α-motoneurons, revealed in our previous work. The bouton volume, mitochondrial volume, and active zone area of the VGLUT2+ boutons on the JC γ-motoneurons were uniformly small. These findings suggest that the JC γ-motoneurons, in contrast to the JC α-motoneurons, receive generally weak glutamatergic synaptic input almost exclusively from VGLUT2+ premotoneurons that form direct synapse with motoneurons.

Presynaptic Dysfunction by Familial Factors in Parkinson Disease / 대한배뇨장애요실금학회지

Parkinson disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer disease. The loss of specific brain area, the substantia nigra pars compacta is known as a major etiology, however it is not fully understood how this neurodegeneration is initiated and what precisely causes this disease. As one aspect of pathophysiology for PD, synaptic dysfunction (synaptopathy) is thought to be an earlier appearance for neurodegeneration. In addition, some of the familial factors cumulatively exhibit that these factors such as α-synuclein, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, parkin, PTEN-induced kinase 1, and DJ-1 are involved in the regulation of synaptic function and missense mutants of familial factors found in PD-patient show dysregulation of synaptic functions. In this review, we have discussed the physiological function of these genetic factors in presynaptic terminal and how dysregulation of presynaptic function by genetic factors might be related to the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease.

Expression of µ-Opioid Receptor in CA1 Hippocampal Astrocytes

µ-opioid receptor (MOR) is a class of opioid receptors with a high affinity for enkephalins and beta-endorphin. In hippocampus, activation of MOR is known to enhance the neuronal excitability of pyramidal neurons, which has been mainly attributed to a disinhibition of pyramidal neurons via activating Gαi subunit to suppress the presynaptic release of GABA in hippocampal interneurons. In contrast, the potential role of MOR in hippocampal astrocytes, the most abundant cell type in the brain, has remained unexplored. Here, we determine the cellular and subcellular distribution of MOR in different cell types of the hippocampus by utilizing MOR-mCherry mice and two different antibodies against MOR. Consistent with previous findings, we demonstrate that MOR expression in the CA1 pyramidal layer is co-localized with axon terminals from GABAergic inhibitory neurons but not with soma of pyramidal neurons. More importantly, we demonstrate that MOR is highly expressed in CA1 hippocampal astrocytes. The ultrastructural analysis further demonstrates that the astrocytic MOR is localized in soma and processes, but not in microdomains near synapses. Lastly, we demonstrate that astrocytes in ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens also express MOR. Our results provide the unprecedented evidence for the presence of MOR in astrocytes, implicating potential roles of astrocytic MOR in addictive behaviors.

Immunohistochemical Localization of Translationally Controlled Tumor Protein in Axon Terminals of Mouse Hippocampal Neurons

Translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) is a cytosolic protein with microtubule stabilization and calcium-binding activities. TCTP is expressed in most organs including the nervous system. However, detailed distribution and functional significance of TCTP in the brain remain unexplored. In this study, we investigated the global and subcellular distributions of TCTP in the mouse brain. Immunohistochemical analyses with anti-TCTP revealed that TCTP was widely distributed in almost all regions of the brain including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, wherein it was localized in axon tracts and axon terminals. In the hippocampus, TCTP was prominently localized to axon terminals of the perforant path in the dentate gyrus, the mossy fibers in the cornu ammonis (CA)3 region, and the Schaffer collaterals in the CA1 field, but not in cell bodies of granule cells and pyramidal neurons, and in their dendritic processes. Widespread distribution of TCTP in axon tracts and axon terminals throughout the brain suggests that TCTP is likely involved in neurotransmitter release and/or maintaining synaptic structures in the brain, and that it might have a role in maintaining synaptic functions and synaptic configurations important for normal cognitive, stress and emotional functions.

The Scaffolding Protein, Grb2-associated Binder-1, in Skeletal Muscles and Terminal Schwann Cells Regulates Postnatal Neuromuscular Synapse Maturation

The vertebrate neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is considered as a “tripartite synapse” consisting of a motor axon terminal, a muscle endplate, and terminal Schwann cells that envelope the motor axon terminal. The neuregulin 1 (NRG1)-ErbB2 signaling pathway plays an important role in the development of the NMJ. We previously showed that Grb2-associated binder 1 (Gab1), a scaffolding mediator of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling, is required for NRG1-induced peripheral nerve myelination. Here, we determined the role of Gab1 in the development of the NMJ using muscle-specific conditional Gab1 knockout mice. The mutant mice showed delayed postnatal maturation of the NMJ. Furthermore, the selective loss of the gab1 gene in terminal Schwann cells produced delayed synaptic elimination with abnormal morphology of the motor endplate, suggesting that Gab1 in both muscles and terminal Schwann cells is required for proper NMJ development. Gab1 in terminal Schwann cells appeared to regulate the number and process elongation of terminal Schwann cells during synaptic elimination. However, Gab2 knockout mice did not show any defects in the development of the NMJ. Considering the role of Gab1 in postnatal peripheral nerve myelination, our findings suggest that Gab1 is a pleiotropic and important component of NRG1 signals during postnatal development of the peripheral neuromuscular system.

Morphometric analysis of feedforward pathways from the primary somatosensory area (S1) of rats

We used biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) to anterogradely label individual axons projecting from primary somatosensory cortex (S1) to four different cortical areas in rats. A major goal was to determine whether axon terminals in these target areas shared morphometric similarities based on the shape of individual terminal arbors and the density of two bouton types: en passant (Bp) and terminaux (Bt). Evidence from tridimensional reconstructions of isolated axon terminal fragments (n=111) did support a degree of morphological heterogeneity establishing two broad groups of axon terminals. Morphological parameters associated with the complexity of terminal arbors and the proportion of beaded Bp vs stalked Bt were found to differ significantly in these two groups following a discriminant function statistical analysis across axon fragments. Interestingly, both groups occurred in all four target areas, possibly consistent with a commonality of presynaptic processing of tactile information. These findings lay the ground for additional work aiming to investigate synaptic function at the single bouton level and see how this might be associated with emerging properties in postsynaptic targets.

Sleep deprivation, pain and prematurity: a review study / Privação do sono, dor e prematuridade: um estudo de revisão

The aim was to describe current reports in the scientific literature on sleep in the intensive care environment and sleep deprivation associated with painful experiences in premature infant. A systematic search was conducted for studies on sleep, pain, premature birth and care of the newborn. Web of Knowledge, MEDLINE, LILACS, Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, VHL and SciELO databases were consulted. The association between sleep deprivation and pain generates effects that are observed in the brain and the behavioral and physiological activity of preterm infants. Polysomnography in intensive care units and pain management in neonates allow comparison with the first year of life and term infants. We have found few references and evidence that neonatal care programs can influence sleep development and reduce the negative impact of the environment. This evidence is discussed from the perspective of how hospital intervention can improve the development of premature infants.

O objetivo foi descrever o estado atual na literatura científica sobre privação do sono associado a experiências dolorosas no prematuro e o papel na evolução do sono em ambiente de terapia intensiva. Realizou-se uma busca sistemática para estudos sobre sono, dor, prematuridade e programas de atenção ao neonato. Foram consultados as bases Web-of-Knowledge, MEDLINE, LILACS, Biblioteca Cochrane, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, BVS e SciELO. A associação entre privação do sono e dor gera efeitos que são observados na atividade cerebral, fisiológica e comportamental dos prematuros. A polissonografia nas unidades intensivas e o manejo da dor em neonatos permitem comparação no primeiro ano de vida com crianças nascidas a termo. Encontraram-se poucas evidências de que programas de cuidado neonatal podem influenciar o desenvolvimento do sono e diminuir o impacto negativo do ambiente. Estas evidências são discutidas na perspectiva de como a intervenção hospitalar pode melhorar o desenvolvimento do prematuro.

Noise-Induced Neural Degeneration and Therapeutic Effect of Antioxidant Drugs

The primary site of lesion induced by noise exposure is the hair cells in the organ of Corti and the primary neural degeneration occurs in synaptic terminals of cochlear nerve fibers and spiral ganglion cells. The cellular basis of noise-induced hearing loss is oxidative stress, which refers to a severe disruption in the balance between the production of free radicals and antioxidant defense system in the cochlea by excessive production of free radicals induced by noise exposure. Oxidative stress has been identified by a variety of biomarkers to label free radical activity which include four-hydroxy-2-nonenal, nitrotyrosine, and malondialdehyde, and inducible nitric oxide synthase, cytochrome-C, and cascade-3, 8, 9. Furthermore, oxidative stress is contributing to the necrotic and apoptotic cell deaths in the cochlea. To counteract the known mechanisms of pathogenesis and oxidative stress induced by noise exposure, a variety of antioxidant drugs including oxygen-based antioxidants such as N-acetyl-L-cystein and acetyl-L-carnitine and nitrone-based antioxidants such as phenyl-N-tert-butylnitrone (PBN), disufenton sodium, 4-hydroxy PBN, and 2, 4-disulfonyl PBN have been used in our laboratory. These antioxidant drugs were effective in preventing or treating noise-induced hearing loss. In combination with other antioxidants, antioxidant drugs showed a strong synergistic effect. Furthermore, successful use of antioxidant drugs depends on the optimal timing of treatment and the duration of treatment, which are highly related to the time window of free radical formation induced by noise exposure.

Research progress of synaptic vesicle recycling / 生理学报

Neurotransmission begins with neurotransmitter being released from synaptic vesicles. To achieve this function, synaptic vesicles endure the dynamic "release-recycle" process to maintain the function and structure of presynaptic terminal. Synaptic transmission starts with a single action potential that depolarizes axonal bouton, followed by an increase in the cytosolic calcium concentration that triggers the synaptic vesicle membrane fusion with presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitter; then the vesicle membrane can be endocytosed for reusing afterwards. This process requires delicate regulation, intermediate steps and dynamic balances. Accumulating evidence showed that the release ability and mobility of synapses varies under different stimulations. Synaptic vesicle heterogeneity has been studied at molecular and cellular levels, hopefully leading to the identification of the relationships between structure and function and understanding how vesicle regulation affects synaptic transmission and plasticity. People are beginning to realize that different types of synapses show diverse presynaptic activities. The steady advances of technology studying synaptic vesicle recycling promote people's understanding of this field. In this review, we discuss the following three aspects of the research progresses on synaptic vesicle recycling: 1) presynaptic vesicle pools and recycling; 2) research progresses on the differences of glutamatergic and GABAergic presynaptic vesicle recycling mechanism and 3) comparison of the technologies used in studying presyanptic vesicle recycling and the latest progress in the technology development in this field.

Activation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors blocks zinc release from hippocampal mossy fibers

BACKGROUND: The hippocampal CA3 area contains large amounts of vesicular zinc in the mossy fiber terminals which is released during synaptic activity, depending on presynaptic calcium. Another characteristic of these synapses is the presynaptic localization of high concentrations of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors, specifically activated by DCG-IV. Previous work has shown that DCG-IV affects only mossy fiber-evoked responses but not the signals from associational-commissural afferents, blocking mossy fiber synaptic transmission. Since zinc is released from mossy fibers even for single stimuli and it is generally assumed to be co-released with glutamate, the aim of the work was to investigate the effect of DCG-IV on mossy fiber zinc signals. RESULTS: Studies were performed using the membrane-permeant fluorescent zinc probe TSQ, and indicate that DCG-IV almost completely abolishes mossy fiber zinc changes as it does with synaptic transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Zinc signaling is regulated by the activation of type II metabotropic receptors, as it has been previously shown for glutamate, further supporting the corelease of glutamate and zinc from mossy fibers.

Changes of Cochlear Nerve Terminals after Temporary Noise-Induced Hearing Loss / 대한이비인후과학회지

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Overexposure to intense sound can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. Post-exposure recovery of thresholds has been assumed to indicate reversal of damage to the inner ear without persistent consequences for auditory function. However, there was a report that acoustic overexposures causing moderate temporary threshold shift caused acute loss of afferent nerve terminals and delayed degeneration of the cochlear ganglion cells while cochlear sensory cells were intact. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the numerical changes of ribbon synapses and efferents to the outer hair cells in ears with temporary noise-induced threshold shifts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four-week old CBA mice with normal Preyer's reflexes were used. Mice were exposed to white noise of 110 dB SPL for one hour. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) and distortion-product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) were recorded before exposure and at four different post-exposure times, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days after noise exposure. Ribbon synapses and efferents near cochlear nerve terminals were stained and calculated in the control group mice at two post-exposure times, 3 and 5 days after the exposure. RESULTS: In the noise-exposed ears, there was no loss of hair cells, in either inner hair cells or outer hair cells. ABR and DPOAE showed maximum threshold shifts after noise-exposure; they returned to the normal pre-exposure values by at day 5. The number of ribbon synapses tended to decrease at 3 days after noise-exposure, but the number of efferent fibers was not statistically different from those of the control mice. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the loss of ribbon synapses could be related with the recovery course of temporary threshold shift, even to the point of full hearing recovery.

Sensory Axon Regeneration: A Review from an in vivo Imaging Perspective

Injured primary sensory axons fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Re-entry is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the CNS-PNS interface. Why axons stop or turn around at the DREZ has generally been attributed to growth-repellent molecules associated with astrocytes and oligodendrocytes/myelin. The available evidence challenges the contention that these inhibitory molecules are the critical determinant of regeneration failure. Recent imaging studies that directly monitored axons arriving at the DREZ in living animals raise the intriguing possibility that axons stop primarily because they are stabilized by forming presynaptic terminals on non-neuronal cells that are neither astrocytes nor oligodendrocytes. These observations revitalized the idea raised many years ago but virtually forgotten, that axons stop by forming synapses at the DREZ.

Oxygen/Glucose Deprivation and Reperfusion Cause Modifications of Postsynaptic Morphology and Activity in the CA3 Area of Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures

Brain ischemia leads to overstimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, referred as excitotoxicity, which mediates neuronal cell death. However, less attention has been paid to changes in synaptic activity and morphology that could have an important impact on cell function and survival following ischemic insult. In this study, we investigated the effects of reperfusion after oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD) not only upon neuronal cell death, but also on ultrastructural and biochemical characteristics of postsynaptic density (PSD) protein, in the stratum lucidum of the CA3 area in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. After OGD/reperfusion, neurons were found to be damaged; the organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, dendrites, and synaptic terminals were swollen; and the PSD became thicker and irregular. Ethanolic phosphotungstic acid staining showed that the density of PSD was significantly decreased, and the thickness and length of the PSD were significantly increased in the OGD/reperfusion group compared to the control. The levels of PSD proteins, including PSD-95, NMDA receptor 1, NMDA receptor 2B, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II, were significantly decreased following OGD/reperfusion. These results suggest that OGD/reperfusion induces significant modifications to PSDs in the CA3 area of organotypic hippocampal slice cultures, both morphologically and biochemically, and this may contribute to neuronal cell death and synaptic dysfunction after OGD/reperfusion.

Ribbon Synapses Formed at the Axon of the Calbindin-Immunoreactive ON Cone Bipolar Cell in OFF Sublamina of the Inner Plexiform Layer in the Rabbit Retina / 체질인류학회지

Some retinal neurons, including intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells have their dendrites stratified in sublamina a of the inner plexiform (IPL), the OFF sublayer, but paradoxically show light-driven ON electrophysiological responses. In order to understand the mechanism on this paradoxical response, by using immunoelectron microscopy with a specific antibody against calbindin, we examined the synaptic connections of the calbindin-immunoreactive ON cone bipolar cell of the rabbit retina, which is thought to make the ribbon synapse in sublamina a of the IPL. The ribbon synapses in sublamina a by calbindin-immunoreactive ON cone bipolar cells were mainly found at the border between the inner nuclear layer and the IPL. Interestingly, the output targets at these ribbon synapses turned out as monads, and multiple synaptic ribbons were engaged in each synapse. These findings were different from those at the conventional ribbon synapse formed by calbindin-immunoreactive ON cone bipolar axon terminals. Thus, these findings may be the characteristics of the calbindin-immunoreactive ON cone bipolar ribbon synapse in sublamina a and can be used to classify the synapse in the retinal circuit research.

Modulation of Presynaptic GABA Release by Oxidative Stress in Mechanically-isolated Rat Cerebral Cortical Neurons

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), which include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the superoxide anion (O2-.), and the hydroxyl radical (OH.), are generated as by-products of oxidative metabolism in cells. The cerebral cortex has been found to be particularly vulnerable to production of ROS associated with conditions such as ischemia-reperfusion, Parkinson's disease, and aging. To investigate the effect of ROS on inhibitory GABAergic synaptic transmission, we examined the electrophysiological mechanisms of the modulatory effect of H2O2 on GABAergic miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSCs) in mechanically isolated rat cerebral cortical neurons retaining intact synaptic boutons. The membrane potential was voltage-clamped at -60 mV and mIPSCs were recorded and analyzed. Superfusion of 1-mM H2O2 gradually potentiated mIPSCs. This potentiating effect of H2O2 was blocked by the pretreatment with either 10,000-unit/mL catalase or 300-micrometer N-acetyl-cysteine. The potentiating effect of H2O2 was occluded by an adenylate cyclase activator, forskolin, and was blocked by a protein kinase A inhibitor, N-(2-[p-bromocinnamylamino] ethyl)-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide hydrochloride. This study indicates that oxidative stress may potentiate presynaptic GABA release through the mechanism of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent pathways, which may result in the inhibition of the cerebral cortex neuronal activity.

The expressions of AMPAR/GluR2 in hippocampal CA1 area of rats before and after late-phase long-term potentiation reversal / 生理学报

Late-phase long-term potentiation (L-LTP) plays a very important role in the maintenance of long-term memory in hippocampus. However, studies have shown that L-LTP can be reversed by subsequent neuronal activity. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether the presynaptic mechanism and the change of AMPARs expressions are involved in the reversal of L-LTP in hippocampal CA1 area. Standard extracellular recording technique was used to record the potential change in the stratum radiatum of CA1 area of adult rat hippocampal slices. Two hours after LTP induction, which was induced by high-frequency stimulation (HFS), two episodes of high-intensity paired-pulse low-frequency stimulation (HI-PP-LFS) were delivered to induce L-LTP reversal. Paired-pulse ratios (PPR) were obtained before LTP induction, 2 h after LTP induction and 30 min after LTP reversal. On the other hand, immunofluorescence histochemistry was used to detect AMPARs expressions before and after L-LTP reversal. The results showed that, after 2 h of induction, L-LTP was partially reversed by two episodes of HI-PP-LFS, and the percentage of depotentiation was 61.79%+/-14.51%. PPR obtained before and after LTP induction, and as well that after LTP reversal, are all more than 1, showing paired-pulse facilitation (PPF). Multiple comparison indicated PPR before LTP induction was the greatest one, and PPR after LTP induction was the smallest. In addition, no significant difference was observed in the intensity of AMPAR/GluR2 immunoreactivity in CA1 area among control group, LTP group and LTP reversal group. These results suggest that the presynaptic mechanism is involved in both the maintenance and reversal of L-LTP and there is no change in AMPAR/GluR2 expression before and after the reversal of L-LTP.

Actualización en la patofisiología de la esquizofrenia desde la perspectiva de la neurociencia de sistemas / Update on the pathophysiology of schizophrenia from the systems neuroscience point of view

La patofisiología de la esquizofrenia (EQZ) sólo podrá entenderse en una aproximación integrativa, basada en la neurociencia de sistemas, para tratar de explicar cómo múltiples genes y neurotransmisores pueden actuar de manera sinérgica para producir el trastorno. En este trabajo se analizarán por separado los diversos endofenotipos de esta enfermedad para tratar de explicar, sobre la base de aproximaciones sistémicas, cómo ocurren los cambios en las interneuronas GABAérgicas en la EQZ, comenzando con la hipofunción GABAérgica y sus consecuencias sobre las neuronas piramidales corticales y la disfunción dopaminérgica a punto de origen hipocampal, lo que permite conciliar eventos neurobiológicos con sus consecuencias conductuales (consilience). Los circuitos involucrados por Lisman, Grace, Coyle, Green y otros autores en esta revisión integran las neurotransmisiones glutamatérgica, GABAérgica, dopaminérgica y colinérgica en un marco sistémico en que también se involucran factores de riesgo genético, para intentar demostrar sus acciones sinérgicas dentro del circuito y generar una aproximación desde la neurociencia de sistemas. Se intentará desarrollar estrategias de distinto orden para comprender la EQZ como enfermedad que produce sus consecuencias devastadoras a través de la acción sinérgica de genes y diversos neurotransmisores integrados en circuitos de procesamiento que operan en complejas dinámicas de tipo no-lineal.

Understanding the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SZ) entails adopting a holistic approach based on systems neuroscience that allows to explain how multiple genes and neurotransmitters can act synergistically to trigger the disorder. In this article, the different endophenotypes of schizophrenia are analysed separaately, with the aim of explaining, by means of systemic approaches, how changes take place in GABAergic interneurons in SZ, starting from the GABAergic hypofunction and ists effects on cortical pyramidal neurons, as well as on the dopaminergic dysfunction at he pont of origin of the hippocampus, which enables to reconcile neurobiological events with their behavioural consequences ("consilience"). The circuits proposed by Lisman, Grace, Coyle, Green and other authors, that make up glutamatergic, GABAerci, dopaminergic and cholinergic neurotransmissions embedded in a systemic framework in whic genetic risk factors are also involved, are included in this review to demonstrate their synergistic actions within the circuit, as well as to develop an approach based on systems neuroscience. The present article will also provide different types of strategies intended to understand SZ as a disease that causes its devastating effects through the synergistic action of genes and the different neurotransmitters organized in processing circuits that operte in complex non-linear dynamics.

Effects of Nicotine on MPTP-induced Parkinson's Disease Animal Model / 대한해부학회지

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Despite extensive researches, the etiology of this disease is still unknown; however, the prevalence of PD is lower in the population of cigarette smokers. In this study, the effects of nicotine were investigated on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinson's disease animal model and the spontaneous locomotor activity was analyzed. In comparison with MPTP-induced PD animals, nicotine-treated PD animals exhibited significant improvement in the number of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc, the relative density of dopaminergic axon terminals in the striatum, and locomotor activity. Also, MPTP-induced astrogliosis was prevented by nicotine treatment. These results suggest that the dopamine depletion in the SNpc and striatum and the decreased spontaneous locomotor activity were prevented by nicotine treatment in the MPTP-induced PD animal model.

Inhibitory Effect of Tyrphostin AG126 on Brain Synaptosomal Dysfunction Induced by Cholesterol Oxidation Products

BACKGROUND: Formation of cholesterol oxidation products is a suggested mechanism of neurodegenerative disorders. Neuronal cell death is mediated by an increased release of excitotoxic glutamate from the presynaptic nerve endings. Tyrosine-specific protein kinases modulate neurotransmitter release at the nerve terminals. Tyrphostin AG126 has anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects. However, it remains uncertain whether tyrphostin AG126 has a preventive effect on the alteration of nerve terminal function induced by cholesterol oxidation products. METHODS: The present study was performed to assess the effect of cholesterol oxidation products against nerve terminal function using synaptosomes isolated from rat cerebrum. We determined the preventive effect of tyrphostin AG126 against oxysterol toxicity by measuring the effects on the glutamate release, depolarization of the membrane potential, changes in Ca2+ levels, and Na+/K+-ATPase activity. RESULTS: Synaptosomes treated with 7-ketocholesterol or 25-hydroxycholesterol exhibited a sustained release of glutamate, depolarization of membrane potential, early rapid increase in cellular Ca2+ levels and decrease in Na+/K+-ATPase activity. Those responses were concentration-dependent. Treatment of tyrphostin AG126 interfered with alteration of synaptosomal functions and decrease in Na+/K+-ATPase activity induced by 7-ketocholesterol or 25-hydroxycholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that 7-ketocholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol seem to cause the release of glutamate by inducing depolarization of the membrane potential and early rapid increase in cellular Ca2+ levels and by inactivating Na+/K+-ATPase in the cerebral synaptosomes. Treatment of tyrphostin AG126 may prevent the oxysterol-induced nerve terminal dysfunction.

GABA Receptor Imaging / 핵의학분자영상

GABA is primary an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is localized in inhibitory interneurons. GABA is released from presynaptic terminals and functions by binding to GABA receptors. There are two types of GABA receptors, GABAA-receptor that allows chloride to pass through a ligand gated ion channel and GABAB-receptor that uses G-proteins for signaling. The GABAA-receptor has a GABA binding site as well as a benzodiazepine binding sites, which modulate GABAA-receptor function. Benzodiazepine GABAA receptor imaging can be accomplished by radiolabeling derivates that activates benzodiazepine binding sites. There has been much research on flumazenil (FMZ) labeled with 11C-FMZ, a benzodiazepine derivate that is a selective, reversible antagonist to GABAA receptors. Recently, 18F-fluoroflumazenil (FFMZ) has been developed to overcome 11C's short half-life. 18F-FFMZ shows high selective affinity and good pharmacodynamics, and is a promising PET agent with better central benzodiazepine receptor imaging capabilities. In an epileptic focus, because the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor amount is decreased, using 11C-FMZ PET instead of 18F-FDG PET, restrict the foci better and may also help find lesions better than high resolution MR. GABAA receptors are widely distributed in the cerebral cortex, and can be used as an viable neuronal marker. Therefore it can be used as a neuronal cell viability marker in cerebral ischemia. Also, GABA-receptors decrease in areas where neuronal plasticity develops, therefore, GABA imaging can be used to evaluate plasticity. Besides these usages, GABA receptors are related with psychological diseases, especially depression and schizophrenia as well as cerebral palsy, a motor-related disorder, so further in-depth studies are needed for these areas.